Rūpa samudaya explains how the ‘colorful world’ we experience (e.g., colorful flowers) is created by the mind (via ‘kāma saññā‘). Modern science confirms that ‘colors’ are not in external objects or in sunlight. Rūpa (specifically the rūpa we see with eyes) in the suttās refers to ‘colorful rūpa‘ (such as ‘colorful flowers’) that we experience based on ‘colorless objects’ in the world (such as ‘colorless flowers’).
January 31, 2026
‘Rūpa Samudaya‘ Explains How Colorful Sights Are Generated by the Mind
1. ‘Rūpa Samudaya‘ means the ‘mechanism of rūpa generation.’ To make it simple, we will consider only those rūpa that we see with our eyes. However, the concepts hold for all sensory inputs, including sights, sounds, smells, and touch.
- ‘Rūpa Samudaya‘ can be thought of in two ways: (i) Generation of ‘colorful rūpa‘ in the mind based on ‘colorless external rūpa‘ and (ii) Arising of ‘colorless rūpa‘ in the external world and the arising of the physical and mental bodies to generate ‘rūpa saññā‘ that makes those ‘colorless rūpa‘ appear as ‘colorful.’
- Both of those can be explained with Paṭicca Samuppāda.
- However, we will focus on only the first aspect in this post. The suttās also mainly discuss that aspect.
Avijjā – Not Understanding the Role of Kāma Saññā in ‘Colored Rūpa‘ Generation
2. The “Avijjā Sutta (SN 22.113)” states that ‘ avijjā (ignorance) is not to understand rūpa (rūpaṁ nappajānāti), their origin (rūpa samudayaṁ nappajānāti), their cessation (rūpa nirodhaṁ nappajānāti), and the practice that leads to their cessation (rūpa nirodhagāminiṁ paṭipadaṁ nappajānāti).’
- Again, rūpa includes not only the visual objects, but also sounds, tastes, smells, and touches.
- Most humans who do not understand Buddha’s teachings (i.e., puthujjana) believe that external objects, sounds, tastes, smells, and touches have ‘mind-pleasing properties.’ They believe that vibrant colors are in flowers, that foods have tastes, that a rose smells good, that certain musical tones are mind-pleasing, and that certain touches are comfortable and joyful.
- The Buddha called such properties ‘kāma guṇa.’ But he explained that kāma guṇa are NOT in external sensory stimuli. Such properties arise in the mind due to the kāma saññā built into our bodies. The external environment also arises to help generate kāma saññā in the minds. See “Kāma Guṇa – Origin of Attachment (Tanhā) .”
- Understanding this issue will take effort. Please do not expect to learn this by mechanically reading a few posts. It requires thinking, and that is a critical part of insight meditation (Vipassanā).
Sights We See Are Not the Same as Objects in the World
3. Our experience of external stimuli (sights, sounds, tastes, smells, and touches) does not reflect the true characteristics of those stimuli.
- We can focus on sights because it is easiest to explain. We experience colorful objects, such as flowers, and attractively dressed people. Even the ‘skin colors of people’ are made up by the mind. There are kammic reasons for various skin colors to be generated. For example, Ven. Moggallana was very dark-skinned.
- Our perception that ‘colors are out there in the world’ has taken root because of one of the following or both:
- Many perceive that a given object inherently ‘has color,’ i.e., the ‘redness of a rose in the rose petals.’
- We have also learned in school that ‘white light’ from the Sun can be split into seven primary colors. That may give the impression that sunlight has ‘colors.’ However, sunlight is a tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes microwave radiation in microwave ovens to X-rays used in imaging. All electromagnetic waves are ‘colorless.’
4. Scientists have now confirmed that objects in the world do not have ‘colors’ attached to them. See “Colors Are Mind-Made (Due to Kāma Saññā).”
- Scientists disregarded the idea that ‘sunlight has colors’ even before rejecting that objects themselves have ‘inherent colors.’ The portion of sunlight that our eyes use to ‘see’ is tiny compared to the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation is colorless.
- In his 1704 book “Opticks,” Isaac Newton famously noted that the rays of light themselves are not “colored.”
“The Rays to speak properly are not coloured. In them there is nothing else than a certain Power and Disposition to stir up a Sensation of this or that Colour.”
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Scientists are trying to prove that the eyes evolved to generate the ‘perception of color.’ A key publication that started this effort is “A pessimistic estimate of the time required for an eye to evolve” by Nilsson, D. E., & Pelger, S. (1994). Even though they have many such ‘models,’ they are unable to make the key connection: how feelings and perceptions can arise in the brain, both of which are composed of inert atoms and molecules. Thus, this issue is related to the ‘hard problem of consciousness’ in science and philosophy.
Viparīta Saññā Triggers Attachment to a ‘Featureless World’
5. The key message the Buddha sought to convey is the following: It is ‘viparīta Saññā’ that generates the ‘illusion of colors’ associated with ‘colorless objects’ and triggers attachment to them.
- In the days of the Buddha, one had to take his word on that based on faith. Of course, that first level of ‘amulika saddhā‘ (or ‘faith not rooted in understanding) would elevate to saddhā, or unbreakable faith (and ‘ariyakānta sila‘), as one cultivated the Noble Path. Saddhā is one of the seven qualities of a Noble Person; see “Saddhamma Sutta (AN 7.94).” The translation there can be improved as follows: ‘Someone has saddhā, shame of doing immoral, fear of doing immoral, is well-exposed to Buddha’s teachings (bahussuta), energetic (with ‘Samma Vāyāma‘), mindful (with ‘Samma Sati‘), and wise (with paññā).’
- But now we have another confirmation via modern science: Colors do not exist in external objects or sunlight, and are made up by the mind (scientists believe mind and the brain are the same). However, the Buddha taught that mind is not in the brain, but in the ‘mental body’; see #7 below.
6. As explained in the post “The Illusion of Perception (Saññā) – It Is Scientific Consensus,” tastes, smells, and other perceptions are also not real in the ultimate sense. Those are ‘false perceptions (viparīta saññā) made up by the mind for us to survive in the world!
- In other words, all ‘sensual pleasures’ we experience are based on ‘false perceptions (viparīta saññā). This is why the Buddha called “saññā” a mirage and the viññāṇa as a magician in the “Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta (SN 22.95).” To quote the English translation there (correct): “Suppose that in the last month of summer, at noon, a shimmering mirage appears. And a person with clear eyes would see and contemplate it, carefully examining it. And it would appear to them as completely void, hollow, and insubstantial. For what substance could there be in a mirage?”
- Without realizing this, all living beings become attached to mind-made pleasures and engage in akusala kamma to acquire more of them. That leads to rebirths in the apāyās, where most rebirths are; see #10 below. That is the root cause of suffering!
- Thus, one must learn to live with this viparīta saññā (because one cannot live life without it; for example, in a truly ‘colorless world’, we will not see anything because black and white are also colors; see #3 of ‘Colors Are Mind-Made (Due to Kāma Saññā)’) with the understanding that those are mirages (because one cannot end suffering without realizing that).
- When one truly understands how we are tempted to engage in akusala kamma based on ‘worthless mirages,’ one becomes a Sotapanna, having eliminated the three diṭṭhi saṁyojana. However, the knowledge required for the mind to avoid automatic attachment to that viparīta saññā is established only at the Anāgāmi stage with the elimination of kāma raga saṁyojana. See #6 of “Kamma Nirodha – How Does It Happen?“
False Perception (Viparīta Saññā) – Arise in the Brain or the Mind?
7. As pointed out above in #4, modern science also agrees that ‘color perception’ is ‘built into us.’ They say ‘color perception’ is generated in the brain (with the help of physical eyes).
- However, the Buddha taught that ‘color perception’ is generated in the mind that is located in the ‘mental body’ and not in the brain.
- The only unresolved issue is that, i.e., whether ‘color perception’ arises in the brain or the mind.
- According to the Buddha, thoughts do not arise in the brain but in the ‘mental body’ (‘manomaya kāya‘ or ‘gandhabba‘) trapped within the physical body. The brain plays a role in bringing the signal to the ‘seat of the mind’ in hadaya vatthu in gandhabba trapped inside the physical body. See “Mental Body – Gandhabba” and “Brain – Interface between Mind and Body.”
- Evidence is emerging to confirm Buddha’s view. Seeing can take place while the brain is confirmed to be inactive. In such cases, the gandhabba pops out of the physical body and can see and hear without the help of the brain (and eyes or ears). Let us examine that evidence because it will help us decide whether perceptions arise in the brain or the mind.
Gandhabba (Without the Physical Body or the Brain) Can See Colors
8. We have evidence from many cases of Near-Death Experiences (NDE) that the gandhabba itself can see colors after it comes out of the physical body.
- The following video describes a physician’s account of how he became convinced that NDEs are real. He is not a Buddhist (very likely not even aware of Buddha’s teachings), but he is convinced of his experience.
9. The woman in the above video temporarily lost brain function, similar to other NDE accounts.
- In most cases, the patient is unaware of the external world until the brain recovers. However, in the above case, the patient’s gandhabba left her body, enabling her to see without the aid of her physical body.
- The woman’s gandhabba may have come out of the paralyzed body at some point. It was in the room when Dr. Greyson came to the room. Then she (her gandhabba) followed him to the other room, where her friend was and watched and listened to the conversation between her friend and Dr. Greyson.
- Once medical treatment restored her brain function, she could recall the conversation and tell Dr. Greyson about it in great detail. She not only heard but also saw the full details. That is why she noticed the red stain on Dr. Greyson’s tie! That means her gandhabba saw in color! (By the way, this is also evidence that memories are not ‘stored’ in the brain; see “Where Are Memories Stored? – Viññāṇa Dhātu“).
- @4:55 mins: He says the NDE patients can see vivid colors, a heightened version of our ‘filtered vision’ through our physical eyes. Also see the video at the end of the post.
- The gandhabba emerging from the physical body is not something all of us can experience. However, Dr. Greyson believes that approximately 5% of people have experienced such an OBE (Out of Body Experience), most commonly in NDE situations (about 10-20%). It is more common among patients who undergo heart surgery because the hadaya vatthu (and, thus, gandhabba) in the mental body overlaps the heart in the physical body.
- See “Near-Death Experiences (NDE): Brain Is Not the Mind” for more NDE experiences. I highly encourage watching the videos in it. They describe how people have a 360-degree vision in an NDE experience, i.e., they could see all around. We can see only in the forward direction with our eyes.
This Is a Serious Issue
10. This is an issue that must be taken seriously. We attach to ‘worldly pleasures’ only because we believe they are ‘real.’ Then we are tempted to engage in lying, stealing, and even killing others, seeking such ‘pleasures.’ The outcomes of them are not pleasant!
- A series of specific suttās start with the “Manussacutiniraya Sutta (SN 56. 102)” which says, “..those who die as humans (not the physical death, but cuti or end of ‘human existence’) and are reborn as humans are few, while those who die as humans and are reborn in hell are many ….” Note that ‘human existence’ can many thousands of years; see “Bhava and Jāti – States of Existence and Births Therein.”
- Then the following suttās say that those who die as humans and are reborn in the animal and hungry ghost realms are many: “Manussacutitiracchāna Sutta (SN 56. 103),” and “Manussacutipettivisaya Sutta (SN 56. 104).“
- The “Manussacutidevanirayādi Sutta (SN 56. 105)” says that those who die as humans and are reborn in Deva realms are few, but those born in niraya are many. Then the “Devacutinirayādi Sutta (SN 56. 106)” states, “who die as Devās and are reborn as Devās are few, while those who die as Devās and are reborn in hell, animal realm, or the hungry-ghost realm are many.”
- Note that “Manussacutiniraya Sutta” is “Manussa cuti niraya Sutta” and indicates a human grasping a niraya bhava at the cuti moment. The other suttās have similar names.
- Many such combinations are shown in the rest of the series. It is a good idea to click through the rest of the suttās.
Summary
11. Modern science confirms that ‘colors’ are not in external objects or in sunlight.
- The only disagreement with modern science concerns the source of the ‘false perception of color’ (the brain or the mind).
- Evidence is emerging from NDE (Near-Death Experiences) that a ‘person’ can see (and hear) while they have an ‘out-of-body experience’ while the brain is inactive.
- In fact, vision without the physical body is clearer; see the video below. That is because the cakkhu pasada rūpa (sight-sensing element in gandhabba) receives direct sight (without the need for light or for the brain to extract a partial image at a time); hence, a gandhabba also has 360-degree vision.
- Thus, Buddha’s teachings are correct. The following video explains the current status of NDE research.